Periphrasis in English Grammar: Definition, Types, and Examples
Understanding periphrasis is crucial for mastering the nuances of English grammar. This grammatical concept, involving the use of auxiliary words to express grammatical functions, allows for greater flexibility and precision in language. This article will delve into the definition of periphrasis, explore its various types, provide numerous examples, outline usage rules, and address common mistakes. This guide is designed for English language learners, teachers, and anyone interested in deepening their understanding of English grammar.
Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Definition of Periphrasis
- Structural Breakdown
- Types and Categories of Periphrasis
- Examples of Periphrasis
- Usage Rules
- Common Mistakes
- Practice Exercises
- Advanced Topics
- FAQ
- Conclusion
Definition of Periphrasis
Periphrasis, derived from Greek, literally means “talking around.” In grammar, it refers to the use of multiple words to express a grammatical function that could otherwise be expressed by a single word, often an inflection. Instead of using a single word form, periphrasis employs auxiliary verbs, prepositions, or other function words in combination with a main verb or adjective to convey meaning. This construction allows for a more explicit and nuanced expression of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, voice, and modality.
The primary function of periphrasis is to provide grammatical information that is not directly encoded in the main verb or adjective. For instance, instead of saying “He kissed,” we can use periphrasis to say “He *is* kissing” (present continuous aspect) or “He *was* kissed” (passive voice). The auxiliary verbs (*is*, *was*) carry the grammatical weight, while the main verb (kissing, kissed) indicates the action itself. The context in which periphrasis is used is varied. It can be used for emphasis, clarity, stylistic variation, or because the language lacks a simple inflected form to express a particular grammatical category.
Periphrasis can be classified based on the grammatical category it expresses. The most common types include periphrastic tense (e.g., will go for future tense), periphrastic aspect (e.g., is going for continuous aspect), periphrastic voice (e.g., was eaten for passive voice), and periphrastic modality (e.g., has to go for expressing obligation). Each of these types serves a distinct purpose in conveying grammatical meaning.
Structural Breakdown
The structure of a periphrastic construction typically involves one or more auxiliary words and a main word (verb, adjective, or adverb). The auxiliary word carries the grammatical information (tense, aspect, modality, etc.), while the main word provides the lexical meaning. The auxiliary word often undergoes inflection to indicate tense, agreement, or other grammatical features.
Consider the example “She *is* working.” Here, “is” is the auxiliary verb, and “working” is the main verb. The auxiliary verb “is” is inflected to agree with the subject “she” and indicates the present tense, while “working” provides the action. This structure is fundamental to understanding how periphrasis functions.
The order of the auxiliary and main words is also crucial. In English, the auxiliary verb usually precedes the main verb. This order is consistent across different types of periphrastic constructions. For example, in “They *have been* studying,” “have been” are the auxiliary verbs, and “studying” is the main verb. The auxiliary verbs appear before the main verb in a specific sequence to convey the perfect continuous aspect.
Types and Categories of Periphrasis
Periphrastic Tense and Aspect
Periphrastic tense and aspect involve the use of auxiliary verbs to indicate when an action takes place and how it unfolds over time. English uses auxiliary verbs extensively to express various tenses and aspects that are not easily conveyed through simple verb inflections alone. This allows for a more precise understanding of the temporal characteristics of events.
Examples include using “will” for future tense (e.g., “I *will go*”), “be” + “-ing” for continuous aspect (e.g., “She *is* reading”), and “have” + past participle for perfect aspect (e.g., “They *have* finished”). These constructions provide information about the timing and duration of actions, offering a richer understanding than simple verb forms could provide.
Periphrastic Voice
Periphrastic voice refers to the use of auxiliary verbs to indicate whether the subject of a sentence is performing the action (active voice) or being acted upon (passive voice). English primarily uses the auxiliary verb “be” to form the passive voice.
The passive voice is formed by combining a form of “be” (e.g., “is,” “was,” “are,” “were,” “been”) with the past participle of the main verb (e.g., “written,” “eaten,” “built”). For example, “The letter *was written* by John” is a passive construction where the subject “The letter” is receiving the action of being written.
Periphrastic Modality
Periphrastic modality involves the use of auxiliary verbs or modal phrases to express degrees of possibility, necessity, obligation, permission, or ability. Unlike modal verbs (e.g., “can,” “must,” “should”), which are single words, periphrastic modals consist of multiple words.
Common periphrastic modals include “have to” (obligation), “be able to” (ability), “be going to” (future intention), and “be allowed to” (permission). For example, “I *have to* study” expresses obligation, while “She *is able to* swim” expresses ability. These phrases provide a more explicit and sometimes more nuanced way of expressing modality compared to single-word modal verbs.
Periphrastic Causative
Periphrastic causative constructions indicate that a subject causes someone else to perform an action. These constructions typically involve verbs like “make,” “have,” “get,” or “allow” followed by an infinitive or a past participle, depending on the specific causative verb used.
For example, “I *made* him clean the room” indicates that “I” caused “him” to clean the room. Similarly, “I *had* my car repaired” indicates that “I” arranged for someone else to repair my car. These constructions are useful for expressing indirect actions or arrangements.
Periphrastic Comparative and Superlative
Periphrastic comparative and superlative forms involve using “more” and “most” before adjectives and adverbs to indicate degrees of comparison. This is typically used with longer adjectives and adverbs, where adding “-er” or “-est” would sound awkward or be grammatically incorrect.
For example, instead of saying “intelligenter,” we say “more intelligent.” Similarly, instead of “intelligentest,” we say “most intelligent.” This periphrastic construction provides a simple and consistent way to form comparative and superlative degrees for a wide range of words.
Examples of Periphrasis
Tense and Aspect Examples
The following table provides examples of periphrastic tense and aspect constructions in English. These examples illustrate how auxiliary verbs are used to express different temporal relationships.
| Tense/Aspect | Example | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Present Continuous | She is reading a book. | “Is” is the auxiliary verb indicating present tense and continuous aspect. |
| Past Continuous | They were playing in the park. | “Were” is the auxiliary verb indicating past tense and continuous aspect. |
| Future Continuous | I will be working tomorrow. | “Will be” indicates future tense and continuous aspect. |
| Present Perfect | He has finished his homework. | “Has” is the auxiliary verb indicating present perfect aspect. |
| Past Perfect | We had already eaten when they arrived. | “Had” is the auxiliary verb indicating past perfect aspect. |
| Future Perfect | By next year, she will have graduated. | “Will have” indicates future perfect aspect. |
| Present Perfect Continuous | They have been studying for hours. | “Have been” indicates present perfect continuous aspect. |
| Past Perfect Continuous | He had been running before he collapsed. | “Had been” indicates past perfect continuous aspect. |
| Future Perfect Continuous | By the time we arrive, they will have been waiting for hours. | “Will have been” indicates future perfect continuous aspect. |
| Simple Future (intention) | I am going to visit my parents. | “Am going to” indicates future intention. |
| Simple Future (scheduled event) | The train is leaving at 6 PM. | “Is leaving” indicates a scheduled future event. |
| Used to (past habit) | I used to play the piano. | “Used to” indicates a past habit or state. |
| Be about to (immediate future) | The show is about to begin. | “Is about to” indicates an event that is about to happen. |
| Be bound to (certainty) | It is bound to rain later. | “Is bound to” indicates a high degree of certainty. |
| Keep + -ing (repeated action) | He keeps interrupting me. | “Keeps” indicates a repeated or continuous action. |
| Start + -ing (beginning) | It started raining. | “Started” indicates the beginning of an action. |
| Finish + -ing (completion) | I finished reading the book. | “Finished” indicates the completion of an action. |
| Go on + -ing (continuation) | He went on talking for hours. | “Went on” indicates the continuation of an action. |
| Get + -ing (gradual change) | It is getting colder. | “Is getting” indicates a gradual change. |
| Simple Past (Emphasis) | I did see him yesterday. | “Did” is used for emphasis in the simple past. |
| Simple Present (Emphasis) | She does like chocolate. | “Does” is used for emphasis in the simple present. |
Voice Examples
The following table provides examples of periphrastic passive voice constructions. The passive voice is formed using a form of “be” + past participle.
| Voice | Example | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Present Passive | The letter is written. | “Is written” is the passive form of the simple present. |
| Simple Past Passive | The car was washed. | “Was washed” is the passive form of the simple past. |
| Present Continuous Passive | The house is being painted. | “Is being painted” is the passive form of the present continuous. |
| Past Continuous Passive | The dinner was being prepared. | “Was being prepared” is the passive form of the past continuous. |
| Present Perfect Passive | The report has been submitted. | “Has been submitted” is the passive form of the present perfect. |
| Past Perfect Passive | The mistake had been corrected. | “Had been corrected” is the passive form of the past perfect. |
| Future Simple Passive | The project will be completed soon. | “Will be completed” is the passive form of the future simple. |
| Future Perfect Passive | The task will have been finished by then. | “Will have been finished” is the passive form of the future perfect. |
| Modal Passive (can) | The door can be opened. | “Can be opened” is the passive form using the modal “can.” |
| Modal Passive (must) | The rules must be followed. | “Must be followed” is the passive form using the modal “must.” |
| Modal Passive (should) | The instructions should be read carefully. | “Should be read” is the passive form using the modal “should.” |
| Modal Passive (might) | The error might be fixed. | “Might be fixed” is the passive form using the modal “might.” |
| Modal Passive (could) | The problem could be solved. | “Could be solved” is the passive form using the modal “could.” |
| Modal Passive (would) | The situation would be improved. | “Would be improved” is the passive form using the modal “would.” |
| Gerund Passive | Being informed is important. | “Being informed” is the passive form using the gerund. |
| Infinitive Passive | I want to be invited. | “To be invited” is the passive form using the infinitive. |
| Passive with ‘get’ | He got injured in the accident. | “Got injured” is an informal passive construction. |
| Passive with ‘by’ | The book was written by her. | “By her” indicates the agent in a passive sentence. |
| Passive without ‘by’ | Mistakes were made. | Passive construction where the agent is unknown or unimportant. |
| Future Continuous Passive | The road will be being repaired next week. | “Will be being repaired” is the passive form of future continuous. |
Modality Examples
The following table provides examples of periphrastic modality. These examples illustrate how modal meanings are expressed using auxiliary verbs and phrases.
| Modality | Example | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Obligation | I have to study for the exam. | “Have to” expresses obligation. |
| Ability | She is able to speak three languages. | “Is able to” expresses ability. |
| Future Intention | They are going to travel to Europe next summer. | “Are going to” expresses future intention. |
| Permission | You are allowed to use the library after hours. | “Are allowed to” expresses permission. |
| Possibility | It is possible that it will rain tomorrow. | “Is possible that” expresses possibility. |
| Necessity | It is necessary to complete the application form. | “Is necessary to” expresses necessity. |
| Advisability | You ought to apologize for your behavior. | “Ought to” expresses advisability. |
| Lack of Necessity | You don’t have to come if you don’t want to. | “Don’t have to” expresses lack of necessity. |
| Prohibition | You are not allowed to smoke here. | “Are not allowed to” expresses prohibition. |
| Suggestion | I suggest that you try the new restaurant. | “Suggest that” expresses a suggestion. |
| Conditional (Likelihood) | It is likely that she will win the competition. | “Is likely that” expresses conditional likelihood. |
| Conditional (Unlikelihood) | It is unlikely that he will pass the test. | “Is unlikely that” expresses conditional unlikelihood. |
| Certainty | It is certain that the sun will rise tomorrow. | “Is certain that” expresses certainty. |
| Moral Obligation | You have a duty to help those in need. | “Have a duty to” expresses moral obligation. |
| Intention (Formal) | We intend to complete the project on time. | “Intend to” expresses formal intention. |
| Readiness | I am ready to start the new job. | “Am ready to” expresses readiness. |
| Willingness | He is willing to help us with the project. | “Is willing to” expresses willingness. |
| Determination | She is determined to succeed. | “Is determined to” expresses determination. |
| Tendency | He tends to be late for meetings. | “Tends to” expresses tendency. |
| Habitual Action | She has a habit of biting her nails. | “Has a habit of” expresses habitual action. |
Causative Examples
The following table provides examples of periphrastic causative constructions. These examples show how one person causes another to perform an action.
| Causative Verb | Example | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Make | I made him clean the room. | “Made” forces someone to do something. |
| Have | I had my car repaired. | “Had” arranges for someone to do something. |
| Get | I got her to help me with the project. | “Got” persuades someone to do something. |
| Allow | My parents allowed me to go to the party. | “Allowed” gives permission for someone to do something. |
| Help | I helped him carry the bags. | “Helped” assists someone in doing something. |
| Force | They forced us to evacuate the building. | “Forced” compels someone to do something. |
| Permit | The school permitted students to use the lab. | “Permitted” gives formal permission. |
| Enable | Technology enabled us to work remotely. | “Enabled” makes it possible for someone to do something. |
| Cause | The rain caused the river to flood. | “Caused” makes something happen. |
| Let | I let my friend borrow my car. | “Let” allows someone to do something. |
| Require | The job requires him to travel frequently. | “Requires” makes something necessary. |
| Motivate | The coach motivated the team to win. | “Motivated” inspires someone to do something. |
| Encourage | I encouraged her to pursue her dreams. | “Encouraged” gives someone confidence to do something. |
| Influence | His words influenced me to change my mind. | “Influenced” affects someone’s decision. |
| Compel | The evidence compelled the jury to convict him. | “Compelled” forces someone through evidence. |
| Assist | I assisted her in completing the project. | “Assisted” helps someone with a task. |
| Advise | I advised him to seek professional help. | “Advised” suggests a course of action. |
| Get (with past participle) | I got my hair cut. | “Got” arranges for something to be done to you. |
| Have (with past participle) | I had the house cleaned. | “Had” arranges for a service to be performed. |
| Provoke | His actions provoked her to anger. | “Provoked” causes a reaction in someone. |
Comparative and Superlative Examples
The following table provides examples of periphrastic comparative and superlative constructions using “more” and “most.”
| Degree | Example | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Comparative | This book is more interesting than that one. | “More interesting” is the comparative form. |
| Superlative | That was the most exciting movie I’ve ever seen. | “Most exciting” is the superlative form. |
| Comparative (Adverb) | She sings more beautifully than her sister. | “More beautifully” is the comparative adverb. |
| Superlative (Adverb) | He runs the most quickly of all the athletes. | “Most quickly” is the superlative adverb. |
| Comparative (Two-Syllable Adjective) | She is more careful than he is. | “More careful” is used as ‘careful’ is a two-syllable adjective. |
| Superlative (Two-Syllable Adjective) | This is the most simple solution. | “Most simple” is used as ‘simple’ is a two-syllable adjective. |
| Negative Comparative | This problem is less complex than the previous one. | “Less complex” expresses a lower degree of complexity. |
| Negative Superlative | That was the least interesting lecture of the series. | “Least interesting” expresses the lowest degree of interest. |
| Comparative (Emphasis) | She is much more talented than her peers. | “Much more talented” emphasizes the degree of comparison. |
| Superlative (Emphasis) | He is by far the most dedicated employee. | “By far the most dedicated” emphasizes the superlative degree. |
| Comparative (Equal Degree) | He is as more intelligent as his brother. | “As more intelligent as” expresses an equal degree of intelligence. |
| Superlative (Unique) | This is the most unique opportunity. | “Most unique” emphasizes the uniqueness. |
| Comparative (Adverbial Phrase) | She works more efficiently than before. | “More efficiently” compares efficiency. |
| Superlative (Adverbial Phrase) | He spoke the most convincingly during the debate. | “Most convincingly” emphasizes persuasiveness. |
| Comparative (Abstract Noun) | There is more beauty in nature than in art. | “More beauty” compares abstract qualities. |
| Superlative (Abstract Noun) | She showed the most courage in the face of adversity. | “Most courage” emphasizes bravery. |
| Comparative (Quantity) | We need more resources to complete the project. | “More resources” compares quantities. |
| Superlative (Quantity) | They have the most knowledge on the subject. | “Most knowledge” emphasizes expertise. |
| Comparative (Formal) | The first option is more advantageous. | “More advantageous” is used in formal contexts. |
| Superlative (Formal) | This is the most significant finding. | “Most significant” is used in formal contexts. |
Usage Rules
Several rules govern the proper use of periphrasis in English. Understanding these rules is essential for avoiding grammatical errors and ensuring clear and effective communication.
Tense and Aspect: When forming periphrastic tenses and aspects, ensure that the auxiliary verb agrees with the subject in number and person. For example, use “is” with singular subjects (e.g., “He is working”) and “are” with plural subjects (e.g., “They are working”). Also, maintain the correct form of the main verb (e.g., present participle for continuous aspects, past participle for perfect aspects).
Voice: In passive constructions, always use a form of “be” followed by the past participle of the main verb. Ensure that the form of “be” agrees with the subject in number and tense. For example, “The book was written” (past simple passive) and “The books are read” (present simple passive).
Modality: When using periphrastic modals, follow the correct structure for each modal phrase. For example, “have to” is followed by the base form of the verb (e.g., “I have to study”). Be mindful of the specific meaning conveyed by each modal phrase and use them appropriately.
Causative: The structure of causative constructions varies depending on the causative verb used. “Make” is typically followed by a bare infinitive (e.g., “I made him clean”), while “get” is followed by a to-infinitive (e.g., “I got her to help”). “Have” can be followed by either a bare infinitive or a past participle, depending on the meaning (e.g., “I had him repair the car” vs. “I had my car repaired”).
Comparative and Superlative: Use “more” and “most” with longer adjectives and adverbs (typically those with two or more syllables). For shorter adjectives and adverbs, use “-er” and “-est” (e.g., “faster,” “tallest”). However, there are exceptions, so it’s best to consult a dictionary or grammar guide when in doubt.
Common Mistakes
Several common mistakes can occur when using periphrasis. Being aware of these errors can help learners avoid them.
Incorrect Subject-Verb Agreement: One common mistake is using the wrong form of the auxiliary verb, leading to subject-verb agreement errors.
- Incorrect: They *is* going to the store.
- Correct: They *are* going to the store.
Misusing Tense and Aspect: Confusing different tenses and aspects can lead to misunderstandings.
- Incorrect: I *am* finished my homework (when it’s completed).
- Correct: I *have* finished my homework.
Incorrect Passive Voice Formation: Forgetting the past participle or using the wrong form of “be” can lead to errors in passive constructions.
- Incorrect: The house *is build*.
- Correct: The house *is built*.
Misusing Modal Phrases: Using modal phrases incorrectly can alter the intended meaning.
- Incorrect: You *must to* study hard.
- Correct: You *have to* study hard.
Incorrect Causative Structures: Using the wrong infinitive form after causative verbs is a common mistake.
- Incorrect: I made him *to clean* the room.
- Correct: I made him *clean* the room.
Using “-er” and “-est” with Longer Words: Applying “-er” and “-est” to longer adjectives and adverbs can sound awkward and is often incorrect.
- Incorrect: more intelligenter
- Correct: more intelligent
Practice Exercises
Test your understanding of periphrasis with the following exercises. Choose the correct option or fill in the blanks to complete the sentences.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 1. She _______ (is/are) reading a novel. | is |
| 2. The cake _______ (was/were) eaten by the children. | was |
| 3. I _______ (have to/must to) finish this report by tomorrow. | have to |
| 4. They _______ (made/got) him clean the garage. | made |
| 5. This problem is _______ (more easy/easier) than the last one. | easier |
| 6. He _______ (is going to/will to) visit his grandmother next week. | is going to |
| 7. The letter _______ (has been/have been) written by her. | has been |
| 8. You _______ (are allowed to/must to) park here. | are allowed to |
| 9. I _______ (had/made) my car repaired yesterday. | had |
| 10. This is the _______ (most interesting/interestingest) book I’ve ever read. | most interesting |
| 11. The flowers _______ (are being/is being) watered right now. | are being |
| 12. She _______ (is able to/can to) speak fluent French. | is able to |
Advanced Topics
For those looking to delve deeper into periphrasis, exploring its role in different languages and its historical development can be highly rewarding. Periphrasis is not unique to English and exists in various forms across many languages, each with its own nuances and characteristics. For example, in Romance languages like Spanish and French, periphrastic constructions are used extensively to express tense, aspect, and modality.
Studying the historical evolution of periphrasis can provide insights into how languages change over time. In English, the use of auxiliary verbs to form periphrastic constructions has increased significantly over the centuries, reflecting a broader trend toward analytic language structures. Examining older texts and comparing them with modern usage can reveal fascinating shifts in grammatical preferences.
Another advanced topic is the interplay between periphrasis and other grammatical phenomena, such as grammaticalization and lexicalization. Grammaticalization is the process by which lexical items gradually evolve into grammatical markers, often leading to the development of new periphrastic constructions. Lexicalization, on the other hand, involves the creation of new words or phrases that function as single units, sometimes arising from frequent use of periphrastic forms.
FAQ
What is the difference between periphrasis and inflection?
Inflection involves changing the form of a word (usually a verb or noun) to indicate grammatical information such as tense, number, or case. Periphrasis, on the other hand, uses additional words, typically auxiliary verbs, to express the same grammatical information. For example, “walked” is an inflected form indicating past tense, while “is walking” is a periphrastic form using the auxiliary verb “is” to indicate present continuous tense.
Why do languages use periphrasis?
Languages use periphrasis for various reasons, including emphasis, clarity, stylistic variation, and because the language may lack a simple inflected form to express a particular grammatical category. Periphrasis can also provide a more nuanced and explicit way of conveying grammatical meaning.
Is periphrasis always necessary?
No, periphrasis is not always necessary. In many cases, a simple inflected form can convey the same meaning. However, periphrasis can be useful for adding emphasis, providing additional information, or expressing grammatical categories that are not easily conveyed through inflection alone.
Can periphrasis be ambiguous?
Yes, periphrasis can sometimes be ambiguous, especially if the context is not clear. For example, “He is going to the store” could indicate a future intention or a scheduled event. The surrounding context usually provides the necessary clues to resolve any ambiguity.
How does periphrasis affect language learning?
Understanding periphrasis is crucial for language learning, as it helps learners grasp the nuances of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, voice, and modality. By recognizing and using periphrastic constructions correctly, learners can improve their accuracy and fluency in the language.
Conclusion
Periphrasis is a fundamental aspect of English grammar that allows for a more flexible and precise expression of grammatical categories. By using auxiliary words to convey tense, aspect, voice, modality, and comparison, periphrasis enriches the language and provides speakers and writers with a wider range of options for expressing their ideas. Understanding the definition, types, usage rules, and common mistakes associated with periphrasis is essential for mastering English grammar and communicating effectively.
